LOVE KERALAM
Location of Kerala in India
Map of Kerala
Coordinates (Thiruvananthapuram): 8.5074°N 76.972°ECoordinates: 8.5074°N 76.972°E
Country India
Region South India
Established 1 November 1956
Capital Thiruvananthapuram
Largest city
Largest Urban Agglomeration Thiruvananthapuram
Kochi
Districts 14 total
Government
• Body Government of India, Government of Kerala
• Governor Hansraj Bhardwaj
• Chief Minister Oommen Chandy (INC)
• Legislature Unicameral (141* seats)
• Parliamentary constituency 20
• High Court Kerala High Court
Area
• Total 38,863 km2 (15,005 sq mi)
Area rank 21st
Population (2011)[1]
• Total 33,387,677
• Rank 12th
• Density 860/km2 (2,200/sq mi)
Time zone IST (UTC+05:30)
ISO 3166 code IN-KL
HDI 0.790[2] (very high)
HDI rank 1st (2011)
Literacy 93.91% (ranked 1st in India)[3]
Official languages Malayalam, English[4]
Website kerala.gov.in
^* 140 elected, 1 nominated
State symbols of Kerala [5]Animal Indian elephant
Bird Great Hornbill
Flower Cassia fistula
Tree Coconut tree
Kerala (Malayalam: കേരള / കേരളം, IPA: ['keːrələ, 'keːrələm] ( listen)) is an Indian state located on the Malabar coast of south-west India. It was formed on 1 November 1956 by the States Reorganisation Act by combining various Malayalam-speaking regions.
The state has an area of 38,863 km2 (15,005 sq mi) and a population of 3.33 crore (33.3 million). It is bordered by Karnataka to the north and north-east, Tamil Nadu to the east and south, and the Arabian Sea[note] to the west. Thiruvananthapuram is the state capital; other major cities are Kochi (Cochin) and Kozhikode (Calicut).
The Chera Dynasty was the first powerful kingdom based in Kerala, though it frequently struggled against attacks by the neighboring Cholas and Pandyas. During the Chera period Kerala became an international spice trading center. Later, in the 15th century, the lucrative spice trade attracted Portuguese traders to Kerala, and eventually paved the way for the European colonization of the whole of India.
Kerala is socially a very progressive society. It has the highest Human Development Index (HDI) among all Indian states: at 0.790 it is comparable to countries classified as having Very High Human Development according to the United Nations Development Programme's Human Development Report 2011. It has the highest literacy rate (93.91%), highest life expectancy (74 years) and lowest sex ratio (the ratio of the number of men to the number of women: 923 men per 1000 women) among Indian states. A survey in 2005 by Transparency International ranked it as the least corrupt state in the country. It is India's cleanest and healthiest state. According to a survey by economics research firm Indicus Analytics, five of the ten most livable cities in India are in Kerala. Kerala has witnessed significant emigration of its people, especially to the Persian Gulf countries during the Kerala Gulf boom, and its economy depends significantly on remittances from a large Malayali expatriate community.
Kerala is an important international and internal tourist destination: the backwaters, beaches, Ayurvedic tourism, and tropical greenery are among its major attractions. National Geographic's Traveler magazine named Kerala as one of the "ten paradises of the world" and "50 must-see destinations of a lifetime"; Travel + Leisure listed it as "one of the 100 great trips for the 21st century". Hinduism is practiced by the majority of the population in Kerala, followed by Islam and Christianity.Contents [hide]
1 Etymology
2 History
2.1 Prehistory
2.2 Kerala and ancient religious texts
2.3 Ancient period
2.4 Early medieval period
2.5 Colonial era
2.6 Post Colonial period
3 Geography
3.1 Climate
4 Flora and fauna
5 Subdivisions
6 Government
7 Economy
7.1 Agriculture
7.2 Fisheries
8 Transport
8.1 Roads
8.2 Railways
8.3 Airports
8.4 Inland water transport
9 Demographics
9.1 Ethnicity
9.2 Languages
9.3 Religions
9.4 Human Development Index
10 Education
11 Culture
11.1 Dance
11.2 Music
11.3 Cuisine
11.4 Attire
11.5 Literature
11.6 Elephants
12 Media
13 Sports
14 Tourism
15 Gallery
16 See also
17 Notes
18 Citations
19 References
20 External links
Aranmula Parthasarathy Temple in Pathanamthitta district
Mountain pass (ghat) in Wayanad district in daytime
Mountain pass (ghat) in Wayanad district at night
Thiruvathira kali, a dance performed by women in Kerala during Onam and Thiruvaathira festivals.
Onappottan, a cultural image of Kerala, related to Onam.
Oppana, a dance form among the Muslim community in Kerala
Margam Kali, a dance form among the Syrian Christian community in Kerala
Paddy fields of Kerala in Sultan Bathery
A house boat on the backwaters near Alleppey in Kerala
Resorts dot the length and breadth of Kerala.
Munnar in Idukki district
Sunset at Varkala Beach
Kalaripayattu, a martial art of Kerala
Forest river in Wayanad district
Thrissur Pooram festival
Etymology
The name Kerala takes the form Keralam in Malayalam, the main language of the state.[6] Two thousand years ago, one of three states in the region was called Cheralam in Classical Tamil. K. M. George, a leading native Malayali linguist and historian of the language, has confirmed the widespread belief that Chera and Kera are variants of the same word.[7][8] A 3rd-century BCE rock inscription by north Indian emperor Asoka the Great refers to the local ruler as Keralaputra (Sanskrit for "son of Kerala"; or "son of Chera[s]", with some semantic connection to coconuts).[9] The Graeco-Roman trade map Periplus Maris Erythraei refers to this Keralaputra as Celobotra.[10]
[edit]
History
Main article: History of Kerala
[edit]
Prehistory
A dolmen erected by Neolithic people in Marayur.
Main article: Pre-history of Kerala
Prehistorical archaeological findings include dolmens of the Neolithic era in the Marayur area. They are locally known as "muniyara", derived from muni(hermit or sage) and ara (dolmen).[11] Rock engravings in the Edakkal Caves (in Wayanad) are thought to date from the early to late Neolithic eras around 5000 BCE.[12][13][14]
Archaeological studies have identified many Mesolithic, Neolithic and Megalithic sites in Kerala.[15] The studies point to the indigenous development of the ancient Kerala society and its culture beginning from the Paleolithic age, and its continuity through Mesolithic, Neolithic and Megalithic ages.[15] However, foreign cultural contacts have assisted this cultural formation.[16] The studies suggest possible relationship with Indus Valley Civilization during the late Bronze Age and early Iron Age.[17]
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Kerala and ancient religious texts
Parasurama, surrounded by settlers, commanding Varuna to part the seas and reveal Kerala.
According to Hindu mythology, the land of Kerala was recovered from the seabed by Parasurama, an avatar of Vishnu; hence Kerala is also called Parasurama Kshetram (The Land of Parasurama). Parasurama was an axe-wielding warrior sage. He threw his axe across the sea, and the water receded as far as it reached. According to legend this new area of land extended from Gokarna to Kanyakumari.[18] Consensus among more scientific geographers agrees that a substantial portion of this area was indeed under the sea in ancient times.[19] The legend later expanded, and found literary expression in the 17th or 18th century with Keralolpathi, which traces the origin of aspects of early Kerala society, such as land tenure and administration, to the story of Parasurama.[20]
Another Puranic character associated with Kerala is Mahabali, an asura and a prototypical king of justice, who ruled the earth from Kerala. He won the war against the devas, driving them into exile. The devas pleaded before Lord Vishnu, who took his fifth incarnation as Vamana and pushed Mahabali down to Patala (the netherworld) to placate the devas. There is a belief that, once a year during the Onam festival, Mahabali returns to Kerala.[21]
The earliest Sanskrit text to mention Kerala by name is the Aitareya Aranyaka of the Rigveda.[22] It is also mentioned in both the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, the two great Hindu epics.[23]
The Matsya Purana, which is among the oldest of the 18 Puranas,[24][25] makes the Malaya Mountains of Kerala (and Tamil Nadu) the setting for the story of Lord Matsya, the first incarnation of Lord Vishnu, and King Manu, the first man and the king of the region.[26][27]
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Ancient period
Image of a Chera ruler created from an archived silver coin of diameter of 1.6 cm and weighs 1.8 gm.
Kerala was a major spice exporter as early as 3000 BCE, according to Sumerian records.[28] Its fame as the land of spices attracted ancient Babylonians, Assyrians and Egyptians to the Malabar Coast in the 3r and 2nd millennia BCE. Arabs and Phoenicians were also successful in establishing their prominence in the Kerala trade during this early period.[29]
The word Kerala is first recorded (as Keralaputra) in a 3rd-century BCE rock inscription (Rock Edict 2) left by the Maurya emperor Asoka (274–237 BCE).[30] The Land of Keralaputra was one of the four independent kingdoms in southern India during Asoka's time, the others being Chola, Pandya, and Satiyaputra.[31] Scholars hold that Keralaputra is an alternate name of the Cheras, the first powerful dynasty based on Kerala.[32][33] These territories once shared a common language and culture, within an area known as Tamiḻakam.[34] While the Cheras ruled the major part of modern Kerala, its southern tip was in the kingdom of Pandyas,[35] which had a trading port sometimes identified in ancient Western sources as Nelcynda (or Neacyndi).[36] At later times the region fell under the control of the Pandyas, Cheras, and Cholas. Ays and Mushikas were two other remarkable dynasties of ancient Kerala, whose kingdoms lied to the south and north of Cheras respectively.[37][38]
In the last centuries BCE the coast became famous among the Greeks and Romans for its spices, especially black pepper. The Cheras had trading links with China, West Asia, Egypt, Greece, and the Roman Empire. In the foreign-trade circles the region was identified by the name Male or Malabar.[39] Muziris, Berkarai, and Nelcynda were among the principal ports at that time.[40] The value of Rome's annual trade with India as a whole was estimated at no less than 50,000,000 sesterces;[41] contemporary Sangam literature describes Roman ships coming to Muziris in Kerala, laden with gold to exchange for pepper.[42] One of the earliest western traders to use the monsoon winds to reach Kerala may have been Eudoxus of Cyzicus, around 118 or 166 BCE, under the patronage of Ptolemy VIII, a king of the Hellenistic Ptolemaic dynasty in Egypt. Various Roman establishments in the port cities of the region, such as a temple of Augustus and barracks for garrisoned Roman soldiers, are marked in the Tabula Peutingeriana: the only surviving map of the Roman cursus publicus.[43][44]
Merchants from West Asia and Southern Europe established coastal posts and settlements in Kerala.[45] Jewish connection with Kerala started as early as 573 BCE.[46][47] Arabs also had trade links with Kerala, possibly started before the 4th century BCE, as Herodotus (484–413 BCE) noted that goods brought by Arabs from Kerala were sold to the Jews at Eden.[40] They intermarried with local people, and from this mixture the large Muslim Mappila community of Kerala are descended.[48] In the 4th century, some Christians also immigrated from Persia and joined the early Syrian Christian community who trace their origins to the evangelistic activity of Thomas the Apostle in the 1st century.[49] Mappila was an honorific title that had been assigned to respected visitors from abroad; and Jewish, Syrian Christian, and Muslim immigration might account for later names of the respective communities: Juda Mappilas, Nasrani Mappilas, and Muslim Mappilas.[50][51] According to the legends of these communities, the earliest mosque,[52] synagogue(1568 CE),[53] and Christian churches[54] in India were built in Kerala. The combined number of Muslims, Christians, and Jews was relatively small at this early stage. They co-existed harmoniously with each other and with local Hindu society, aided by the commercial benefit from such association.[48]
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Early medieval period
Tharisapalli plates: testify that during the Kulasekhara period merchant guilds and trade corporations played a very significant role in the economy and social life of the times.
Much of history of the region from the 6th to the 8th century is obscure.[30] A Second Chera Kingdom ( c. 800–1102), also known as Kulasekhara dynasty of Mahodayapuram, was established by Kulasekhara Varman, which at its zenith ruled over a territory comprising the whole of modern Kerala and a smaller part of modern Tamil Nadu. During the early part of Kulasekara period, the southern region from Nagerkovil to Thiruvalla was ruled by Ay kings, who lost their power in 10th century and thus the region became a part of the Kulasekara empire.[55][56] During Kulasekhara rule, Kerala witnessed a flourishing period of art, literatute, trade and the Bhakti cult of Hinduism.[57] A Keralite identity, distinct from the Tamils, became linguistically separate during this period.[58] For the local administration, the empire was divided into provinces under the rule of Naduvazhis, with each province comprising a number of Desams under the control of chieftains, called as Desavazhis.[57]
The inhibitions, caused by a series of Chera-Chola wars in the 11th century, resulted in the decline of foreign trade in Kerala ports. Buddhism and Jainism disappeared from the land. The social system became fractured with internal divisions on the lines of caste.[59] Finally, the Kulasekhara dynasty was subjugated in 1102 by the combined attack of Later Pandyas and Later Cholas.[55] However, in the 14th century, Ravi Varma Kulashekhara (1299-1314) of the southern Venad kingdom was able to establish a short-lived supremacy over southern India. After his death, in the absence of a strong central power, the state was fractured into about thirty small warring principalities; most powerful of them were the kingdom of Samuthiri in the north, Venad in the south and Kochi in the middle.[60][61]
[edit]
Colonial era
This figure illustrates the path of Vasco da Gama heading for the first time to India (black line)
The monopoly of maritime spice trade in the Indian Ocean stayed with Arabs during the high and late medieval periods. However, the dominance of Middle East traders got challenged in the European Age of Discovery during which the spice trade, particularly in black pepper, became an influential activity for European traders.[62] Around the 15th century, the Portuguese began to dominate the eastern shipping trade in general, and the spice-trade in particular, culminating in Vasco Da Gama's arrival in Kappad Kozhikode in 1498.[63][64][65] The Zamorin of Calicut permitted the new visitors to trade with his subjects. The Portuguese trade in Calicut prospered with the establishment of a factory and fort in his territory. However, Portuguese attacks on Arab properties in his jurisdiction provoked Zamorin and finally it led to conflicts among them. The Portuguese took advantage of the rivalry between Zamorin and king of Kochi; they allied with Kochi and when Francisco de Almeida was appointed as the Viceroy of Portuguese India in 1505, his headquarters was at Kochi. During his reign, Portuguese managed to dominate over the relation with Kochi and established a few fortresses in Malabar coast.[66] Nonetheless, Portuguese suffered severe set back from the attacks of Zamorin forces; especially the naval attacks under the leadership of admirals of Calicut known as Kunjali Marakkars compelled them to seek a treaty. In 1571, Portuguese were defeated by the Zamorin forces in the battle at Chaliyam fort.[67]
Dutch commander De Lannoy surrenders to Marthanda Varma at the Battle of Colachel. Depiction at Padmanabhapuram Palace
Tipu Sultan's fort at Palakkad; view from outside the northern wall.
The weakened Portuguese were ousted by the Dutch East India Company, who took advantage of continuing conflicts between Kozhikode and Kochi to gain control of the trade. The Dutch in turn were weakened by constant battles with Marthanda Varma of the Travancore Royal Family, and were defeated at the Battle of Colachel in 1741. An agreement, known as Treaty of Mavelikkara, was signed by the Dutch and Travancore in 1753, according to which the Dutch were compelled to detach from all political involvements in the region. In the meantime, Marthanda Varma annexed many smaller northern kingdoms through military conquests, resulting in the rise of Travancore to a position of preeminence in kerala.[68]
In 1766, Hyder Ali, the ruler of Mysore invaded northern Kerala. His son and successor, Tipu Sultan, launched campaigns against the expanding British East India Company, resulting in two of the four Anglo-Mysore Wars. Tipu ultimately ceded Malabar District and South Kanara to the Company in the 1790s; both were annexed to Madras Presidency of British India in 1792. The Company forged tributary alliances with Kochi in 1791 and Travancore in 1795.[69] Thus, by the end of 18th century, the whole of kerala fell under the control of the British, either administered directly or under suzerainty.
A nineteenth-century map of Madras Province in British India. After independence, Kerala was formed by merging Malabar, Cochin, Travancore and the South Kanara district
There were major revolts in Kerala during its transition to democracy in the 20th century; most notable among them are the 1921 Malabar Rebellion and the 1946 Punnapra-Vayalar uprising in Travancore.[70] In the Malabar Rebellion, Mappila Muslims of Malabar rioted against Hindu zamindars and the British Raj.[71] Some social struggles against caste inequalities also erupted in the early decades of 20th century, leading to the 1936 Temple Entry Proclamation that opened Hindu temples in Travancore to all castes;[72] Malabar soon did likewise, and Cochin followed with a similar proclamation in 1948, after Independence.
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Post Colonial period
After British India was partitioned in 1947 into India and Pakistan, Travancore and Cochin joined the Union of India and on 1 July 1949 were merged to form Travancore-Cochin. On 1 January 1950 (Republic Day), Travancore-Cochin was recognised as a state. The Madras Presidency was organised to form Madras State in 1947.
On 1 November 1956, the state of Kerala was formed by the States Reorganisation Act merging the Malabar district, Travancore-Cochin (excluding four southern taluks, which were merged with Tamil Nadu), and the taluk of Kasargod, South Kanara.[73] In 1957, elections for the new Kerala Legislative Assembly were held, and a reformist, Communist-led government came to power, under E. M. S. Namboodiripad.[73] It was the first time a Communist government was democratically elected to power anywhere in the world. It initiated pioneering land reforms, leading to lowest levels of rural poverty in India.[74]
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Geography
Main article: Geography of Kerala
See also: Climate of India
Coconut palms can be found all over Kerala
Kerala is wedged between the Lakshadweep Sea and the Western Ghats. Lying between north latitudes 8°18' and 12°48' and east longitudes 74°52' and 77°22',[75][76] Kerala experiences the humid equatorial tropic climate. The state has a coast of length 590 km (370 mi)[77] and the width of the state varies between 11 and 121 km (22–75 miles). Geographically, Kerala can be divided into three climatically distinct regions: the eastern highlands (rugged and cool mountainous terrain), the central midlands (rolling hills), and the western lowlands (coastal plains). Located at the extreme southern tip of the Indian subcontinent, Kerala lies near the centre of the Indian tectonic plate; hence, most of the state is subject to comparatively little seismic and volcanic activity.[78] Pre-Cambrian and Pleistocene geological formations compose the bulk of Kerala’s terrain.
Anamudi from Eravikulam National Park
Vembanad, the largest lake in Kerala
The eastern region of Kerala consists of high mountains, gorges and deep-cut valleys immediately west of the Western Ghats' rain shadow. Forty-one of Kerala’s west-flowing rivers, and three of its east-flowing ones originate in this region. The Western Ghats form a wall of mountains interrupted only near Palakkad (hence also known Palghat), where the Palakkad Gap breaks through to provide access to the rest of India. The Western Ghats rise on average to 1,500 m (4920 ft) above sea level, while the highest peaks reach above 2,500 m (8200 ft). Anamudi, the highest peak in South India, is at an elevation of 2,695 metres (8,842 ft). Just west of the mountains lie the midland plains comprising central Kerala, dominated by rolling hills and valleys.[75] Generally ranging between elevations of 250 and 1,000 m (820 and 3300 ft), the eastern portions of the Nilgiri and Palni Hills include such formations as Agastya Mala and Anamala.
Kerala’s western coastal belt is relatively flat, and is criss-crossed by a network of interconnected brackish canals, lakes, estuaries, and rivers known as the Kerala Backwaters. Lake Vembanad, Kerala’s largest body of water, dominates the Backwaters; it lies between Alappuzha and Kochi and is more than 200 km2 (77 sq mi) in area. Around 8% of India's waterways (measured by length) are found in Kerala.[79] The most important of Kerala’s forty-four rivers include the Periyar (244 km), the Bharathapuzha (209 km), the Pamba (176 km), the Chaliyar (169 km), the Kadalundipuzha River (130 km), the Valapattanam (129 km) and the Achankovil (128 km). The average length of the rivers of Kerala is 64 km. Many of the rivers are small and entirely fed by monsoon rains.[75] These conditions result in the nearly year-round waterlogging of such western regions as Kuttanad, 500 km2 of which lies below sea level. As Kerala's rivers are small and lack deltas, they are more prone to environmental factors. The rivers also face problems such as sand mining and pollution.[80] The state experiences several natural hazards such as landslides, floods, lightning and droughts. The state was also affected by the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami.
A catastrophic flood in Kerala in 1341 CE drastically modified its terrain and consequently affected its history. The course of the river Periyar was changed, and the Arabian Sea receded several miles. The Kuttanad region became cultivable, and the Muziris (Kodungalloor) harbour became defunct. A new harbour was developed at Kochi.[81][82]
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Climate
With around 120–140 rainy days per year[83]:80, Kerala has a wet and maritime tropical climate influenced by the seasonal heavy rains of the southwest summer monsoon and northeast winter monsoon.[84] About 65 percent of the rainfall occurs during the first season (June to August), corresponding to the southwest monsoon, and the rest during the second season (September to December), corresponding to northeast monsoon.[84] Southwest monsoon: The moisture-laden winds, on reaching the southernmost point of the Indian Peninsula, because of its topography, become divided into two parts: the Arabian Sea Branch and the Bay of Bengal Branch. The Arabian Sea Branch of the Southwest Monsoon first hits the Western Ghats in Kerala, thus making the area the first state in India to receive rain from the Southwest Monsoon. Northeast monsoon: The distribution of pressure patterns is reversed during this season and the cold winds from North India pick up moisture from the Bay of Bengal and precipitate it in the east coast of peninsular India. In Kerala, the influence of the northeast monsoon is seen towards southern districts only.[85] Kerala's rainfall averages 3,107 mm (122 in.) annually. Some of Kerala's drier lowland regions average only 1,250 mm (49 in.); the mountains of eastern Idukki district receive more than 5,000 mm (197 in.) of orographic precipitation, the highest in the state. In eastern Kerala, a drier tropical wet and dry climate prevails.
During summer, Kerala is prone to gale force winds, storm surges, cyclone-related torrential downpours, occasional droughts, and rises in sea level.[86]:26, 46, 52 The mean daily temperatures range from 19.8 °C to 36.7 °C.[75] Mean annual temperatures range from 25.0–27.5 °C in the coastal lowlands to 20.0–22.5 °C in the eastern highlands.[86]:65[hide]
Climate data for Kerala
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Average high °C (°F) 28.0
(82.4) 30
(86) 31
(88) 32
(90) 34
(93) 34
(93) 30
(86) 29
(84) 29
(84) 30
(86) 30
(86) 31
(88) 34
(93)
Average low °C (°F) 22
(72) 23
(73) 24
(75) 25
(77) 25
(77) 24
(75) 23
(73) 23
(73) 23
(73) 23
(73) 23
(73) 22
(72) 22
(72)
Source: [87]
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Flora and fauna
Main article: Flora and fauna of Kerala
Brahminy Kite (Haliastur indus), commonly known as Krishnapparunthu in the local language of Kerala
A Common Lime Butterfly (Papilio demoleus) in Kadavoor
Much of Kerala's notable biodiversity is concentrated and protected in the Western Ghats. Almost one fourth of India's 10,000 plant species are found in the state. Among the almost 4,000 flowering plant species (1,272 of which are endemic to Kerala and 159 threatened) are 900 species of medicinal plants.[88][89]:11
Its 9,400 km2 of forests include tropical wet evergreen and semi-evergreen forests (lower and middle elevations—3,470 km2), tropical moist and dry deciduous forests (mid-elevations—4,100 km2 and 100 km2, respectively), and montane subtropical and temperate (shola) forests (highest elevations—100 km2). Altogether, 24% of Kerala is forested.[89]:12 Two of the world’s Ramsar Convention listed wetlands—Lake Sasthamkotta and the Vembanad-Kol wetlands—are in Kerala, as well as 1455.4 km2 of the vast Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. Subjected to extensive clearing for cultivation in the 20th century,[90]:6–7 much of the remaining forest cover is now protected from clearfelling. Kerala's fauna are notable for their diversity and high rates of endemism: 102 species of mammals (56 of which are endemic), 453 species of birds, 202 species of freshwater fishes, 169 species of reptiles (139 of them endemic), and 89 species of amphibians (86 endemic).[88] These are threatened by extensive habitat destruction, including soil erosion, landslides, salinization, and resource extraction.[91]
Eastern Kerala’s windward mountains shelter tropical moist forests and tropical dry forests, which are common in the Western Ghats. Here, sonokeling (Dalbergia latifolia), anjili, mullumurikku (Erythrina), and Cassia number among the more than 1,000 species of trees in Kerala. Other plants include bamboo, wild black pepper, wild cardamom, the calamus rattan palm (a type of climbing palm), and aromatic vetiver grass (Vetiveria zizanioides).[89]:12 Living among them are such fauna as Indian Elephant (Elephas maximus indicus), Bengal Tiger, Indian Leopard (Panthera pardus fusca), Nilgiri Tahr, Common Palm Civet, and Grizzled Giant Squirrel.[89]:12, 174–175 Reptiles include the King Cobra (Ophiophagus hannah), viper, python, and Mugger Crocodile (Crocodylus palustris). Kerala's birds are legion—Malabar Trogon, the Great Hornbill, Kerala Laughingthrush, Darter, and Southern Hill Myna are several emblematic species. In lakes, wetlands, and waterways, fish such as kadu (stinging catfish) and Choottachi (Orange chromide—Etroplus maculatus) are found.[89]:163–165
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Subdivisions
Main articles: Districts of Kerala and Corporations, municipalities and taluks of Kerala
Kerala's fourteen districts are distributed among Kerala's six historical regions: North Malabar (far-north Kerala), South Malabar (northern Kerala), Kochi (central Kerala), Northern Travancore, Central Travancore (southern Kerala) and Southern Travancore (far-south Kerala).
Population density map of Kerala graded from darkest shading (most dense) to lightest (least dense)District Region Population (2011)[92] Area (as at 2001)[92]
Kasaragod Malabar 1,302,600 1,992 km2 (769 sq mi)
Kannur Malabar 2,525,637 2,966 km2 (1,145 sq mi)
Wayanad Malabar 816,558 2,131 km2 (823 sq mi)
Kozhikode Malabar 3,089,543 2,345 km2 (905 sq mi)
Malappuram Malabar 4,110,948 3,550 km2 (1,370 sq mi)
Palakkad Malabar,Kochi 2,810,892 4,480 km2 (1,730 sq mi)
Thrissur Kochi,Malabar 3,110,327 3,032 km2 (1,171 sq mi)
Ernakulam Kochi, Travancore 3,279,860 2,951 km2 (1,139 sq mi)
Idukki Travancore 1,107,453 4,479 km2 (1,729 sq mi)
Kottayam Travancore 1,979,451 2,203 km2 (851 sq mi)
Alappuzha Travancore 2,121,943 1,414 km2 (546 sq mi)
Pathanamthitta Travancore 1,195,537 2,462 km2 (951 sq mi)
Kollam Travancore 2,629,703 2,498 km2 (964 sq mi)
Thiruvananthapuram Travancore 3,307,284 2,192 km2 (846 sq mi)
Kerala's 14 districts, which serve as the administrative regions for taxation purposes, are further subdivided into 63 taluks; these have fiscal and administrative powers over settlements within their borders, including maintenance of local land records. Taluks of kerala are further divided into 1453 revenue villages.[93] Consequent to the 74th Amendment to the Constitution of India, the Local self-government Institutions are to function as the third tier of Government and it constitutes 14 District Panchayats, 152 Block Panchayats, 978 Grama Panchayats, 60 Municipalities, 5 Corporations and 1 Township.[94] Mahé, a part of the Indian union territory of Pondicherry (Puducherry), is a coastal exclave surrounded by Kerala on all of its landward approaches.
In India, self-governance of the major cities rests with Municipal corporations; there are 5 such bodies in Kerala that govern Thiruvananthapuram, Kochi, Kozhikode, Kollam and Thrissur.[95] While Thiruvananthapuram (formerly known as Trivandrum) – the state capital – with a population of 750,000 in the city proper, is the largest city of Kerala,[96] Kochi (the most densely populated city in the state) holds the second position. Kochi metropolitan area, with a population of 2.1 million, is the largest urban agglomeration in Kerala. According to a survey by economics research firm, Indicus Analytics, Thiruvananthapuram, Kozhikode, Kochi, Thrissur and Kannur found place in the 10 best cities in India to spend life, while the survey used parameters such as health, education, environment, safety, public facilities and entertainment to rank the cities.[97][hide]
List of Major cities in Kerala
Rank (in India) City District Population
Thiruvananthapuram
Kochi
Kozhikode
Kollam
Thrissur
1 (59) Thiruvananthapuram Thiruvananthapuram 796,084
2 (72) Kochi Ernakulam 632,997
3 (101) Kozhikode Kozhikode 550,921
4 (124) Kollam Kollam 367,477
5 (134) Thrissur Thrissur 315,596
6 Alappuzha Alappuzha 241,072
7 Palakkad Palakkad 131,019
8 Kanhangad Kasaragod 125,884
9 Malappuram Malappuram 101,330
Source: 2011 Census of India [98]
List of cities in Kerala based on the population (not based on urban agglomeration population).
[edit]
Government
Main article: Government of Kerala
Kerala High Court in Kochi
The Kerala Legislative Assembly Building
The Kerala Secretariat Building in
Following the Constitution of India, the State of Kerala has a parliamentary system of representative democracy for its governance; universal suffrage is granted to state residents. The government structure is organized into the traditional three branches: Legislature, Executive and Judiciary.
Legislature: The unicameral legislature, the Kerala Legislative Assembly, comprises elected members and special office bearers (the Speaker and Deputy Speaker) elected by the members from among themselves. Assembly meetings are presided over by the Speaker and in the Speaker's absence, by the Deputy Speaker. Kerala has 140 Assembly constituencies.[99] The state sends 20 members to the Lok Sabha and 9 to the Rajya Sabha.[100]
Executive: The Governor of Kerala is the constitutional head of state, and is appointed by the President of India.[101][102] The executive authority is headed by the Chief Minister of Kerala, who is the de facto head of state and is vested with extensive executive powers; the Legislative Assembly's majority party leader is appointed to this position by the Governor. The Council of Ministers, which answers to the Legislative Assembly, has its members appointed by the Governor on advice of the Chief Minister. Auxiliary authorities known as panchayats, for which local body elections are regularly held, govern local affairs.
Judiciary: The judiciary consists of the Kerala High Court and a system of lower courts. The High Court, located at Kochi, has a Chief Justice along with 26 permanent and two additional (pro tempore) justices. Kerala High Court also hears cases from the Union Territory of Lakshadweep.
Local governance: Though the local self-government bodies namely, Panchayat, Municipalities and Corporations existed in Kerala since 1959, the major initiative to decentralize the governance in Kerala was started only in 1993, conforming to the constitutional amendments of central government in this direction. With the enactment of Kerala Panchayati Raj Act and Kerala Municipality Act in the year 1994, the state entered a new era of local self-governance. Kerala Panchayati Raj Act envisages a 3-tier system of local-government with Gram panchayat, Block panchayat and District Panchayat forming the hierarchy. The acts ensure clear cut demarcation of power among these institutions. However, Kerala Municipality Act envisages a single-tier system for urban areas, with the institution of Municipality designed at par with Gram panchayat of the former system. Substantial administrative, legal and financial powers are delegated these bodies to ensure efficient decentralization. As per the present norms, the state government devolves about 40 per cent of the state plan outlay to the local government. The state has pioneered in many of these steps to empower local self-governance and it acted as a turning point in the nation's history of decentralization.[citation needed]
Kerala hosts two major political alliances: the United Democratic Front (India) (UDF—led by the Indian National Congress) and the Left Democratic Front (Kerala) (LDF—led by the Communist Party of India (Marxist) (CPI(M)). At present, the UDF is the ruling coalition in government; Oommen Chandy of the INC is the Chief Minister of Kerala and V.S. Achuthanandan of the LDF is the Chief Opposition leader. Strikes, protests and marches are ubiquitous in Kerala because of the comparatively strong presence of labour unions.[103][104]
[edit]
Economy
The interior of a building at Technopark.Thiruvananthapuram . Technopark accounts for nearly 70% of the state's IT exports.
Main article: Economy of Kerala
See also: Category:Industries based in KeralaYear Gross State Domestic Product
1980 42,860
1985 75,200
1990 140,980
1995 387,620
2000 697,920
2005 1,025,080[105]
Rural women processing coir threads
Cardomom plant
A typical paddy field in Kerala
Since independence, Kerala was managed as a democratic socialist welfare economy. Since the 1990s, liberalisation of the mixed economy allowed onerous Licence Raj restrictions against capitalism and foreign direct investment to be lightened, leading to economic expansion and job creation. In fiscal year 2007–2008, the nominal gross state domestic product (GSDP) was 162,414.79 crore (US$30.7 billion). Recent GSDP growth (9.2% in 2004–2005 and 7.4% in 2003–2004) has been robust compared to historical averages (2.3% annually in the 1980s and between 5.1%[106]:8 and 5.99%[107] in the 1990s).[106]:8 The state recorded 8.93% growth in enterprises from 1998 to 2005 compared with 4.80% nationally.[108] Relatively few such enterprises are major corporations or manufacturers.[86] Kerala's Human Development Index rating is the highest in India.[109] This apparently paradoxical "Kerala phenomenon" or "Kerala model of development" of very high human development and not much high economic development results from the strong service sector.[86]:48[110]:1
Kerala's economy depends on emigrants working in foreign countries (mainly in the Persian Gulf countries such as United Arab Emirates or Saudi Arabia), and remittances annually contribute more than a fifth of GSDP.[111] As of 2008, the Gulf countries altogether have a Keralite population of more than 2.5 million, who send home annually a sum of USD 6.81 billion,[112] which is more than 15.13% of Remittance to India in 2008, the highest among Indian States.
The service sector (including tourism, public administration, banking and finance, transportation, and communications—63.8% of GSDP in 2002–2003) and the agricultural and fishing industries (together 17.2% of GSDP) dominate the economy.[107][113] Nearly half of Kerala's people are dependent on agriculture alone for income.[114] Some 600 varieties[89]:5 of rice (Kerala's most important staple food and cereal crop)[115]:5 are harvested from 3105.21 km2 (a decline from 5883.4 km2 in 1990)[115]:5 of paddy fields; 688,859 tonnes are produced per annum.[114] Other key crops include coconut (899,198 ha), tea, coffee (23% of Indian production,[116]:13 or 57,000 tonnes[116]:6–7), rubber, cashews, and spices—including pepper, cardamom, vanilla, cinnamon, and nutmeg. Around 1.050 million fishermen haul an annual catch of 668,000 tonnes (1999–2000 estimate); 222 fishing villages are strung along the 590 km coast. Another 113 fishing villages dot the hinterland.
Kerala's coastal belt of Karunagappally is known for high background radiation from thorium-containing monazite sand. In coastal panchayats, median outdoor radiation levels are more than 4 mGy/yr and, in certain locations on the coast, it is as high as 70 mGy/yr.[117]
Traditional industries manufacturing such items as coir, handlooms, and handicrafts employ around one million people. Around 180,000 small-scale industries employ around 909,859 Keralites; 511 medium and large scale manufacturing firms are located in Kerala. A small mining sector (0.3% of GSDP)[113] involves extraction of ilmenite, kaolin, bauxite, silica, quartz, rutile, zircon, and sillimanite.[114] Home gardens and animal husbandry also provide work for hundreds of thousands of people. Other major sectors are tourism, manufacturing, and business process outsourcing. As of March 2002, Kerala's banking sector comprised 3341 local branches; each branch served 10,000 persons, lower than the national average of 16,000; the state has the third-highest bank penetration among Indian states.[118] On 1 October 2011, Kerala became the first state in the country to have a banking facility in every village.[119] Unemployment in 2007 was estimated at 9.4%;[120] underemployment, low employability of youths, and a 13.5% female participation rate are chronic issues,[121]:5, 13 [122] as is the practice of Nokku kooli, 'wages for looking on'.[123] By 1999–2000, the rural and urban poverty rates dropped to 10.0% and 9.6% respectively.[124]
The state's 2005–2006 budget was 219 billion.[125] The state government's tax revenues (excluding the shares from Union tax pool) amounted to 111,248 million in 2005, up from 63,599 million in 2000. Its non-tax revenues (excluding the shares from Union tax pool) of the Government of Kerala as assessed by the Indian Finance Commissions reached 10,809 million in 2005, nearly double the 6,847 million revenues of 2000.[126] However, Kerala's high ratio of taxation to gross state domestic product (GSDP) has not alleviated chronic budget deficits and unsustainable levels of government debt, which have impacted social services.[127]
The state treasury has suffered a loss of thousands of millions of rupees thanks to the state staging over 100 hartals annually in recent times. A record total of 223 hartals were observed in 2006, resulting in a revenue loss of over 2000 crore.[128]
[edit]
Agriculture
Agriculture in Kerala has passed through many changing phases. The major change occurred in the 1970s, when rice production became less attractive because of increased availability of rice supply all over India and decreased availability of labour supply. Consequently, investment in rice production decreased significantly and a major portion of the land was shifted for the cultivation of perennial tree crops and seasonal crops. Profitability of crops in Kerala is reducing because of a shortage of farm labourers, the high price of land and the uneconomic size of operational holding areas.[129]
A scenic landscape, with water filled paddy fields.
Kerala produces 97% of the national output of pepper and accounts for 85% of the area under natural rubber in the country. Coconut, tea, coffee, cashew, and spices—including cardamom, vanilla, cinnamon, and nutmeg—comprise a critical agricultural sector. The key agricultural staple is rice, with some six hundred varieties grown in Kerala's extensive paddy fields. Nevertheless, home gardens comprise a significant portion of the agricultural sector. Related animal husbandry is also important, and is touted by proponents as a means of alleviating rural poverty and unemployment among women, the marginalized, and the landless. Feeding, milking, breeding, management, health care, and concomitant micro-enterprises provide work for around 32 lakh (3.2 million) of Kerala's 55 lakh (5.5 million) households. The state government seeks to promote such activity via educational campaigns and the development of new cattle breeds such as the "Sunandini".
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Fisheries
A fisherman in rural Kerala
With 590 km of coastal belt, 400,000 hectares of inland water resources and about 220,000 active fishermen, Kerala is the leading producer of fish among the states of India. According to 2003–04 reports, about 1.1 million people earn their livelihood from fishing and allied activities such as drying, processing, packaging, exporting and transporting fisheries. The annual yield of the sector was estimated as 608,000 tons in 2003–04.[130] This contributes to about 3% of the total economy of the state. In 2006, about 22% of the total Indian marine fishery yield was from Kerala industry.[131]
The output of the sector is highly seasonal in nature and the major season is during the southwest monsoon. During this season, a suspended mud bank would be developed along the shore, which in turn leads to calm ocean water and hence peak output for the fishermen. This unique phenomenon is locally called chakara. The fish landings consist of a large variety: pelagic species (59%), demersal species (23%), crustaceans and molluscs.[131]
[edit]
Transport
KSRTC is the major agency providing long-haul public bus service in Kerala.
The main Portico of the Trivandrum Central Railway Station
Cochin International Airport (CIAL)
State Water Transport Department is the main agency providing inland water transport facilities.
[edit]
Roads
Main article: Roads in Kerala
Kerala has 145,704 kilometres (90,536 mi) of roads (4.2% of India's total). This translates to about 4.62 kilometres (2.87 mi) of road per thousand population, compared to an average of 2.59 kilometres (1.61 mi) in all India. Virtually all of Kerala's villages are connected by road.
Roads in Kerala include 1,524 km of national highway (2.6% of the nation's total), 4341.6 km of state highway and 18900 km of district roads.[132] Most of Kerala's west coast is accessible through two national highways, NH 47 and NH 17, and the eastern side is accessible through various State Highways. There is also a Hill Highway (Kerala) proposed, to make easy access to eastern hills.
NH 17 connects Edapally (Kochi) to Panvel (Maharashtra) and is the longest stretch of national highway in the state (421 km) Starting from the city of Kochi it passes through Kozhikode, Kannur and Kasaragod before entering Karnataka state. The other major stretch of national highway in the state is National Highway 47, which connects Salem to Kanyakumari and passes through the major towns and cities like Palakkad, Thrissur, Kochi, Alappuzha, Kollam and Thiruvananthapuram. The Salem-Kochi stretch of this highway is a part of North-South Corridor of the Indian highway system. The length of the National Highway 47 (India) through Kerala is 416.8 km.[133] NH 49 (Kochi – Dhanushkodi), NH 208 (Kollam – Thirumangalam), NH 212 (Kozhikode – Mysore), NH 213 (Kozhikode – Palakkad), NH 220 (Kollam – Theni) are the other national highways serving the state of Kerala.
The Department of Public Works is responsible for maintaining and expanding the state highways system and major district roads.The Kerala State Transport Project (KSTP), which includes the GIS-based Road Information and Management Project (RIMS), is responsible for maintaining and expanding the state highways in Kerala; it also oversees a few major district roads.[134][135]
Traffic in Kerala has been growing at a rate of 10–11% every year, resulting in high traffic and pressure on the roads. Kerala's road density is nearly four times the national average, reflecting the state's high population density. Kerala's annual total of road accidents is among the nation's highest. The accidents are mainly the result of the narrow roads and irresponsible driving. [136]
[edit]
Railways
The Indian Railways' Southern Railway line runs through the state, connecting most major towns and cities except those in the highland districts of Idukki and Wayanad.
Dates of beginning of railway transport in various sections of the state are given below:
Beypore–Tirur (12 March 1861); Shoranur–Ernakulam (1902); Shenkottai–Punalur (26 November 1904);Nilambur-Shoranur (1927); Punalur–Thiruvananthapuram (4 November 1931); Ernakulam–Kottayam (1956); Kottayam–Kollam (1958); Thiruvananthapuram–Kanyakumari (1979); Thrissur–Guruvayur (1994).[137]
The railway network in the state is controlled by three divisions of Southern Railway, namely Trivandrum Railway Division, Palakkad Railway Division and Madurai Railway Division. Thiruvananthapuram Central is the busiest railway station in the state and second busiest in the Southern Railway Zone after Chennai Central. Kerala's major railway stations are Kannur, Kozhikode, Tirur, Shornur Junction, Palakkad Junction, Thrissur, Angamaly, Ernakulam Town, Ernakulam Junction, Alappuzha, Kottayam, Tiruvalla, Chengannur, Kayamkulam Junction, Kollam Junction and Thiruvananthapuram Central.
[edit]
Airports
Kerala has three major international airports, at Thiruvananthapuram, Kochi and Kozhikode. Two more international airports are proposed, at Kannur and Pathanamthitta.[138] The Cochin International Airport is the busiest and largest in the state, and was the first Indian airport to be incorporated as a public limited company; it was funded by nearly 10,000 non-resident Indians from 30 countries.[139] Trivandrum International Airport was the first international airport in an Indian non-metro city.
[edit]
Inland water transport
Kerala, with numerous backwaters, is one of the few states in India where waterways are successfully used for commercial inland navigation. The transportation is mainly done with country craft and passenger vessels. There are 67 navigable rivers in Kerala. The total length of the inland waterways in the state is 1687 km. The main constraints to the expansion of inland navigation are lack of depth in the waterway caused by silting, lack of maintenance of navigation system and bank protection, accelerated growth of the water hyacinth, lack of modern inland craft terminals, and lack of a cargo handling system. A 205 km canal, National Waterway 3, runs between Kottapuram and Kollam.[140]
[edit]
Demographics
See also: Religions of Kerala and List of most populous urban agglomerations in Kerala
Main article: Demographics of Kerala[hide]
Population trend
Census Pop. %±
1951 13,549,000 —
1961 16,904,000 24.8%
1971 21,347,000 26.3%
1981 25,454,000 19.2%
1991 29,099,000 14.3%
2001 31,841,000 9.4%
2011 33,388,000 4.9%
Source: 2001 & 2011 Censuses of India[141][142][143]
Kerala is home to 3.44% of India's population; at 819 persons per km2, its land is nearly three times as densely settled as the rest of India, which is at a population density of 325 persons per km2.[144] Kerala's rate of population growth is India's lowest,[145] and Kerala's decadal growth (9.42% in 2001) is less than half the all-India average of 21.34%.[146] Whereas Kerala's population more than doubled between 1951 and 1991 by adding 15.6 million people to reach 29.1 million residents in 1991, the population stood at less than 32 million by 2001. Kerala's coastal regions are the most densely settled, leaving the eastern hills and mountains comparatively sparsely populated.[75]
[edit]
Ethnicity
See also: Ethnic groups in Kerala and Racial history of Malabar
The 31.8 million[147] Keralites are predominantly of Malayali descent. Kerala's 321,000 indigenous tribal Adivasis, 1.10% of the population, are concentrated in the east.[148]:10–12
[edit]
Languages
Languages of Kerala in 2001[149]
Malayalam (96.74%)
Tamil (1.87%)
Others (1.39%)
Malayalam is Kerala's official language; Tamil is widely understood in Kerala. Konkani, Tulu, Kannada, Hindi, Mahl and various Adivasi (tribal) languages are also spoken by ethnic minorities, especially in the south-western region.
[edit]
Religions
Main article: Religion in Kerala
Kerala's principal religions are Hinduism (56.2%), Islam (24.7%), and Christianity (19.0%).[150] In comparison with the rest of India, Kerala experiences relatively little sectarianism.[151]
According to 2001 Census of India figures, 56.2% of Kerala's residents are Hindus, 24.7% are Muslims, 19% are Christians, and the remaining 1.1% follows other religions.[150] The major Hindu castes are Ezhavas, Nairs, Nambudiri and Dalits. The rest of the Hindu castes, including those in the list of Other Backward Class (OBC), are minority communities. Islam and Judaism arrived in Kerala through Arab traders.[152] Muslims of Kerala, generally referred to as Moplahs, mostly follow the Shafi'i Madh'hab under Sunni Islam. The major Muslim organizations are Sunni, Mujahid and Jama'at-e-Islami. Christianity is believed to have reached the shores of Kerala in 52 CE with the arrival of St Thomas, one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus Christ.[153][154] Saint Thomas Christians (also known as Syrian Christians or Nasrani) include Syro-Malabar Catholic, Syro-Malankara Catholic, Malankara Orthodox, Jacobite and Marthoma. Latin Rite Christians were converted by the Portuguese in the 16th and 19th centuries, mainly from communities where fishing was the traditional occupation. A significant Jewish community existed in Kerala until the 20th century, when most of them migrated to Israel, leaving only a handful of families.[155] The Paradesi Synagogue at Kochi is the oldest synagogue in the Commonwealth. Jainism has a considerable following in the Wayanad district. Buddhism was dominant at the time of Ashoka the Great but vanished by the 8th century CE.[156]Religion in Kerala[150]
Religion Percent
Hinduism 56.2%
Islam 24.7%
Christianity 19.0%
Others 1.1%
Adi Sankara, born in Kaladi, Kerala, propounded Advaita Vedanta, which is one of the most important influential doctrines in Hindu philosophy. Historically, steps taken by many progressive and tolerant Hindu kings[157] and movements like that of Vaikunda Swami [158] and Narayana Guru for social reform and tolerance helped to establish Kerala as one of the most socially progressive states in India. Certain Hindu communities such as the Nairs, some Ezhavas and the Muslims around North Malabar used to follow a traditional matrilineal system known as marumakkathayam, although this practice ended in the years after Indian independence. Other Muslims, Christians, and some Hindu castes such as the Namboothiris and the Ezhavas follow makkathayam, a patrilineal system.[159] Owing to the former matrilineal system, women in Kerala enjoy a high social status.[160] However, gender inequality among low caste men and women is reportedly higher compared to that in other castes.[161] :1
[edit]
Human Development Index
Kerala finds a unique place among the states of India, with the highest Human Development Index (HDI), a status for which the state is noted in many global platforms from 1981 onward, but it has a poor record of economic development coupled with a remarkably lower per capita income, even lower than the national average.[162] Comparatively higher spending of the government in primary level education, health care and elimination of poverty from the 19th century onward has helped the state to keep a very high HDI,[162] marked latest as 0.790 in India Human Development Report (2011), prepared by the central government's Institute of Applied Manpower Research.[163][164] But, sustainability of this lopsided development model with low economic growth has been under question from many spheres. Nonetheless, the Human Development Report, 2005 prepared by Centre for Development Studies envisages a virtuous phase of inclusive development for the state since the advancement in human development has already started aiding the economic development of the state.[162]
According to a 2005–2006 national survey, Kerala has one of the highest literacy rates (94.59%) among Indian states[22] and life expectancy (74 years) was among the highest in India in 2011.[165] Kerala's rural poverty rate fell from 69% (1970–1971) to 19% (1993–1994); the overall (urban and rural) rate fell 36% between the 1970s and 1980s.[166] By 1999–2000, the rural and urban poverty rates dropped to 10.0% and 9.6% respectively.[124] These changes stem largely from efforts begun in the late 19th century by the kingdoms of Cochin and Travancore to boost social welfare.[167][168] This focus was maintained by Kerala's post-independence government.[86][109]:48
Kerala has the highest life expectancy in the country, which is nearly 75 years and 78 years respectively for males and females. The life expectancy of Kerala is similar to that of developed nations in the world that shows that the facilities for treatment and health are of a high standard. Kerala's healthcare system has garnered international acclaim. The United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) and the World Health Organisation designated Kerala the world's first "baby-friendly state" because of its effective promotion of breast-feeding over formulas.[169] For example, more than 95% of Keralite births are hospital-delivered.[170]:6 Ayurveda (both elite and popular forms),[171]:13 siddha, and many endangered and endemic modes of traditional medicine, including kalari, marmachikitsa and vishavaidyam, are practiced. Some occupational communities such as Kaniyar were known as native medicine men in relation with practice of such streams of medical systems, apart from their traditional vocation.[172] These propagate via gurukula discipleship,[171]:5–6 and comprise a fusion of both medicinal and supernatural treatments,[171]:15 and are partly responsible for drawing increasing numbers of medical tourists.
A steadily aging population (11.2% of Keralites are over age 60[109]) and low birthrate (18 per 1,000)[173] make Kerala one of the few regions in the developing world to have undergone the "demographic transition" characteristic of such developed nations as Canada, Japan, and Norway.[110]:1 In 1991, Kerala's total fertility rate (children born per women) was the lowest in India. Hindus had a TFR of 1.66, Christians 1.78, and Muslims 2.97.[174] The sub-replacement fertility level and infant mortality rate are lower compared to those of other states (estimated at 12[86][173]:49 to 14[175]:5 deaths per 1,000 live births)
Gender relations also form a part in the Quality of life indicators and according to Human Development Report (1996) published by United Nations Development Programme, Kerala's Gender Development Index was reported as 597 and higher than any other state of India. Many factors, such as high rates of female literacy, education, work participation and life expectancy, along with favourable female-to-male ratio, have contributed to this achievement.[176] Kerala's female-to-male ratio (1.058) is significantly higher than that of the rest of India.[110][177]:2.
Better awareness among its citizen has brought the status of "least corrupt Indian state" for Kerala according to the surveys conducted by Transparency International (2005)[178] and India Today (1997)[179]
Kerala is the cleanest and healthiest state in India.[180] However, Kerala's morbidity rate is higher than that of any other Indian state—118 (rural Keralites) and 88 (urban) per 1,000 people. The corresponding figures for all India are 55 and 54 per 1,000, respectively.[175]:5Yet this is likely explained by the fact that, as mentioned above, Kerala has a higher ratio of senior citizens than India. Kerala's 13.3% prevalence of low birth weight is substantially higher than that of First World nations.[173] Outbreaks of water-borne diseases such as diarrhoea, dysentery, hepatitis, and typhoid among the more than 50% of Keralites who rely on 3 million water wells is a problem worsened by the widespread lack of sewers.[181]:5–7 In respect of women empowerment also, some negative factors such as higher suicide rate, lower share of earned income, complaints of sexual harassment and limited freedom are reported.[176]
[edit]
Education
Main article: Education in Kerala
Hardware training for students given by "IT@SCHOOL" project
The University of Kerala's administrative building in Thiruvananthapuram.
Following the instructions of the Wood's despatch of 1854, both the princely states, Travancore and Cochin, launched mass education drives with the support from different agencies mainly based on castes and communities and introduced a system of grant-in-aid to attract more private initiatives. The commendable works of social leaders, such as Narayana Guru and Ayyankali, among the socially discriminated castes in Kerala, in tandem with the initiatives of community-based organizations like Nair Service Society, SNDP, Muslim Mahajana Sabha, Yoga Kshema Sabha (of Nambudiris) and different congregations of Christian churches, led to considerable progress in the mass education of Kerala.[182]
In 1991, Kerala became the first state in India to be recognized as a totally literate state, though the effective literacy rate at that time was only 90 percent. The net enrollment in elementary education is almost 100 per cent and is almost balanced among different sexes, social groups and regions, unlike other states of India.[183] The state topped the Education Development Index (EDI) among 21 major states in India in the year 2006–2007.[184] According to the first Economic Census, conducted in 1977, 99.7 per cent of the villages in Kerala had a primary school within 2 km, 98.6 had a middle school within 2 km and 96.7 per cent had a high school or higher secondary school within 5 km, far ahead of national averages.[185]
The educational system prevailing in the state schooling is for 10 years, which are streamlined into lower primary, upper primary and secondary school stages with a 4+3+3 pattern.[183] After 10 years of secondary schooling, students typically enroll in Higher Secondary Schooling in one of the three major streams—liberal arts, commerce or science.[186] Upon completing the required coursework, students can enroll in general or professional under-graduate (UG) programmes.
The majority of the public schools are affiliated with the Kerala State Education Board. Other familiar educational boards are the Indian Certificate of Secondary Education (ICSE), the Central Board for Secondary Education (CBSE), and the National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS). English is the language of instruction in most self-financing schools, while government and government-aided schools offer English or Malayalam.[186] Though the education cost is generally considered low in Kerala,[187] according to the 61st round of the National Sample Survey (2004–2005), per capita spending on education by the rural households in Kerala was reported to be 41 for Kerala, more than twice the national average. The survey also reveals that the rural-urban difference in the household expenditure on education was much less in Kerala than in the rest of India.[188]
A few universities in Kerala are Kannur University, Mahatma Gandhi University, University of Calicut, University of Kerala, Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala Agricultural University, and Sree Sankaracharya University of Sanskrit.[189] Premiere educational institutions in Kerala are the Indian Institute of Management Kozhikode (one of the thirteen Indian Institutes of Management), the National Institute of Technology Calicut (NITC), Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Thiruvananthapuram and the Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology (IIST). Kerala also has a national law school, which is known as the National University of Advanced Legal Studies. Center for Development Studies offers M Phil and PhD level courses of Jawaharlal Nehru University, Delhi.
The Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics flourished between the 14th and 16th centuries. In attempting to solve astronomical problems, the Kerala school independently created a number of important mathematics concepts including results—series expansion for trigonometric functions.
[edit]
Culture
A Kathakali artist
During Onam, Kerala's biggest celebration, Keralites create pookkalam (floral carpet) designs in front of their houses.
Keralite elephants, caparisoned, during the Sree Poornathrayesa Temple festival.
A mohiniattam performance
The annual snake boat race is performed during Onam Celebrations on the Pamba River
Main articles: Arts of Kerala and Culture of Kerala
The culture of Kerala is composite and cosmopolitan in nature and it's an integral part of Indian culture.[23] It has been elaborated upon through centuries of contact with neighboring and overseas cultures.[190] However, the geographical insularity of Kerala from the rest of the country has caused to develop a distinctive outlook in every sphere of culture such as lifestyle, art, architecture, language, literature and social institutions.[23] The Malayalam calendar (also known as Kollavarsham), a solar calendar started from 825 CE in Kerala, serves as the official calendar of Kerala and finds common usage in planning agricultural and religious activities.
[edit]
Dance
Kerala is home to a number of dance and artforms. Dance forms which originated in Kerala are today popular worldwide especially the Kathakali dance form. Some of the most popular dance forms in Kerala are: Kathakali,Theyyam,Thullal,Koodiyattam,Duffmuttu or Aravanmuttu,Margamkali,Kaikottikali or Thiruvathirakali,Thitambu Nritham.
Originated over 500 years ago. It is a combination of drama, dance, music and ritual. The word 'Katha' in Malayalam means Story and 'kali' means Play. Thus Kathakali literally means 'Story-Play'.
Just as the name Kaliyattam indicates, it is a sacred ritual dance performed to glorify the goddess Kaali. The term 'Theyyam' is supposed to be the corrupt form of the Malayalam word 'Daivam', meaning God.It earned the name Thirayattam as every thira or village performed this ritualistic art at the village temple known as kaavu.
The word 'Thullal' means 'Caper' or 'to leap or jump about playfully'. This art form emerged in the eighteenth century. A solo performance combining both dance and recitation, thullal is the explication of a tale - normally drawn from the puranas, narrated in verse.
Koodiyattam is the earliest classical dramatic art form of Kerala. Koodiyattam literally means "acting together". Koodiyattam is a temple art and probably the only surviving form of the traditional presentation of Sanskrit drama.
Duffmuttu (also known as Aravanmuttu or Arbanamuttu) is a dance form particular to the Muslim community of Kerala. The origin of Duffmutt can be traced back to the Arabs. It is still accompanied by Arabic music. Oppana Dance Oppana is a dance form specific to the Muslim community of Kerala. Oppana is usually a bridal group dance performed the day before the wedding day. It is a dance form essential to the wedding entertainment and festivities of the Muslims especially in the Malabar region of Kerala.
Kaikottikkali, also known as Thiruvathirakali, is a very popular group dance of Kerala. Thiruvathirakali is performed by the women of Hindu community, often during festive seasons like Onam.
Margamkali is a very ancient and the most popular artistic performance prevalent among the Syrian Christians of Kerala. Margamkali is performed mainly by men on festive occasions, especially during the time of marriage.
North Kerala has many rich art traditions, of which "Thitambu Nritham" is one. It is mainly performed by Namboothiris of this part of Kerala, and rarely other Braahmanan communities, say for example, Embranthiris.
[edit]
Music
Development of classical music in Kerala is attributed to the contributions it received from the traditional performance arts associated with the temple culture of Kerala.[191] Development of the indigenous classical music form, Sopana Sangeetham, illustrates the rich contribution that temple culture has made to the arts of Kerala.[191] Carnatic music dominates Keralite traditional music. This was the result of Swathi Thirunal Rama Varma's popularization of the genre in the 19th century.[192][193] Raga-based renditions known as sopanam accompany kathakali performances. Melam (including the paandi and panchari variants) is a more percussive style of music; it is performed at Kshetram-centered festivals using the chenda. Melam ensembles comprise up to 150 musicians, and performances may last up to four hours. Panchavadyam is a different form of percussion ensemble, in which up to 100 artists use five types of percussion instrument. Kerala's visual arts range from traditional murals to the works of Raja Ravi Varma, the state's most renowned painter.[191] Most of the castes and communities in Kerala have rich collections of folk songs and ballads associated with a variety of themes; Vadakkan Pattukal (Northern Ballads), Thekkan pattukal (Southern Ballads), Vanchi pattukal (Boat Songs), Mappila Pattukal (Muslim songs) and Pallipattukal (Church songs) are a few of them.[194]
[edit]
Cuisine
Main article: Cuisine of Kerala
Kerala cuisine has a multitude of both vegetarian and non-vegetarian dishes prepared using fish, poultry and meat. Culinary spices have been cultivated in Kerala for millennia and they are characteristic of its cuisine. Rice is a dominant staple that is eaten at all times of day. Non-vegetarian dishes, including those with beef and pork, are popular in the state.[195]
Breakfast dishes are frequently based on the rice preparations idli, puttu Idiyappam, or pulse-based vada or tapioca. These may be accompanied by chutney, kadala, payasam, payar pappadam, Appam, egg masala and fish curry. Lunch dishes include rice and curry along with rasam, pulisherry and sambar. Sadhya is a vegetarian dish, often served on a banana leaf and followed with a cup of payasam. Popular snacks include banana chips, yam crisps, tapioca chips, unniyappam and kuzhalappam.
Sea food specialities include karimeen, prawn, shrimp and other crustacean dishes.[196]
[edit]
Attire
Both men and women traditionally don flowing and unstitched garments. These include the mundu, a loose piece of cloth wrapped around men's waists. Women typically wear the sari, a long and elaborately wrapped banner of cloth, wearable in various styles. Presently, North Indian dresses such as Salwar kameez are also popular among women in Kerala.[citation needed]
[edit]
Literature
Malayalam literature is medieval in origin and includes such figures as the 14th-century Niranam poets (Madhava Panikkar, Sankara Panikkar and Rama Panikkar), and the 17th-century poet Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan, whose works mark the dawn of both modern Malayalam language and indigenous Keralite poetry. Paremmakkal Thoma Kathanar and Kerala Varma Valiakoi Thampuran are noted for their contribution to Malayalam prose. The "triumvirate of poets" (Kavithrayam), Kumaran Asan, Vallathol Narayana Menon, and Ulloor S. Parameswara Iyer, are recognised for moving Keralite poetry away from archaic sophistry and metaphysics, and towards a more lyrical mode.[citation needed]
In the second half of the 20th century, Jnanpith awardees like G. Sankara Kurup, S. K. Pottekkatt, Thakazhi Sivasankara Pillai, M. T. Vasudevan Nair and O. N. V. Kurup have made valuable contributions to the Malayalam literature. Later, such Keralite writers as O. V. Vijayan, Kamaladas, M. Mukundan, and Booker Prize winner Arundhati Roy, whose 1996 semi-autobiographical bestseller[197] The God of Small Things is set in the Kottayam town of Ayemenem, have gained international recognition.[198]
[edit]
Elephants
Elephants have been an integral part of culture of Kerala. Kerala is home to the largest domesticated elephant population in India—about 700 Indian elephants, owned by temples as well as individuals. These elephants are mainly employed for the processions and displays associated with festivals celebrated all around the state. About 10,000 festivals are celebrated in the state annually and some animal lovers have sometimes raised concerns regarding the overwork of domesticated elephants.[199] In Malayalam literature, elephants are referred to as the 'sons of the sahya. The elephant is the state animal of Kerala[93] and is featured on the emblem of the Government of Kerala.
[edit]
Media
Main article: Media in Kerala
The National Family Health Survey – 3, conducted in 2007, ranked Kerala as a state with the highest media exposure in India. Dozens of newspapers are published in Kerala, in nine major languages,[200] but principally Malayalam and English. The most widely circulating Malayalam-language newspapers are Malayala Manorama, Mathrubhumi, Madhyamam, Deshabhimani, Mangalam, Kerala Kaumudi, Chandrika, Thejas, Janayugam, Janmaboomi, Deepika and Siraj Daily. Major Malayalam periodicals include Mathrubhumi, India Today Malayalam, Madhyamam Weekly, Grihalakshmi, Vanitha, Dhanam, Chithrabhumi, and Bhashaposhini.
Doordarshan is the state-owned television broadcaster. Multi system operators provide a mix of Malayalam, English and international channels via cable television. Some of the popular Malayalam television channels are Asianet, Surya TV, Kiran TV, Mazhavil Manorama, Manorama News, Indiavision, Kairali TV, Kairali WE, Kairali People, Yes Indiavision, Asianet News, Asianet Plus, Amrita TV, Reporter, Jaihind, Jeevan TV, and Media One TV. All India Radio, the national radio service, reaches much of Kerala via its Thiruvananthapuram, Kochi, Thrissur, Alappuzha, Kozhikode and Kannur Malayalam-language broadcasts. Television serials, reality shows and the Internet have become major sources of entertainment and information for the people of Kerala. A Malayalam version of Google News was launched in September 2008.[201] Regardless, Keralites maintain high rates[quantify] of newspaper and magazine subscriptions. A sizeable "people's science" movement has taken root in the state, and such activities as writers' cooperatives are becoming increasingly common.[110][202]:2
BSNL, Reliance Infocomm, Airtel, Vodafone, Idea, Tata Docomo and Aircel are the major cell phone service providers in the state.[203] Broadband Internet services are widely available throughout the state; some of the major ISPs are BSNL, Asianet Satellite communications, Reliance Communications, Airtel and VSNL. According to the Telecom Regulatory Commission of India (TRAI) report, as of January 2012 the total number of wireless phone subscribers in Kerala is about 34.3 million and the wireline subscriber base is at 3.2 million, accounting for the telephone density of 107.77.[203] Unlike in many other States, the urban-rural divide is not visible in Kerala with respect to mobile phone penetration.[204]
Malayalam films carved a niche for themselves in the Indian film industry with the presentation of social themes.[205] Malayalam cinema takes a wide variety of themes in its making and it is far ahead of Hindi or Tamil cinema in terms of its artistic value, because of the reflection of social consciousness attributed to the literary connection it had from 1960s.[206] It has been producing both parallel and mainstream cinema for years and won national recognition by winning the Presidents Awards for the cinemas Chemmeen, Nirmalyam and Swayamvaram. Directors from Kerala, like Adoor Gopalakrishnan, John Abraham, and G. Aravindan, have made a considerable contribution to the Indian parallel cinema. Kerala has also given birth to numerous talented actors, such as Bharath Gopi, Prem Nazir, Mammotty, Mohanlal, Suresh Gopi, Murali, Oduvil Unnikrishnan, Cochin Haneefa, Thilakan and Nedumudi Venu. Movies produced in Hindi, Tamil and English (Made in Hollywood) are popular among Keralites. Late Malayalam actor Prem Nazir holds the world record for having acted as the protagonist of over 720 movies.[207] Since 1980s, actors Mammootty and Mohanlal have dominated the movie industry; Mammootty has won three national awards while Mohanlal has two to his credit.[208]
The media, telecommunications, broadcasting and cable services are regulated by the Telecom Regulatory Authority of India. The current Advisor of TRAI is Dr Sibichen K Mathew for the Karnataka and Kerala region.[209][210]
[edit]
Sports
Main article: Sports in Kerala
By 21st century, almost all of the native sports and games from Kerala have either disappeared or become just an art form performed during local festivals. These include Poorakkali, Padayani, Thalappandukali, Onathallu, Parichamuttukali, Velakali, Kilithattukali etc.[211] However, Kalaripayattu, the mother of all martial arts in the world,[212] is an exception and many people enthusiastically practice this indigenous martial sport. It has also attracted interest from foreign countries and found place in global media like BBC.[213] Another traditional sport of Kerala is the boat race, especially the race of Snake boats.[211]
Now, cricket and football have become the most popular sports in the state; both were introduced in Malabar during the British colonial period in the 19th century. A few cricketers, like Tinu Yohannan,[214] Shanthakumaran Sreesanth[215] and Abey Kuruvilla,[216] found places in the national cricket team. In spite of the popularity of cricket in the state, the Kerala cricket team has not yet been able to make good performance in the Ranji Trophy, the premier first-class cricket tournament in India, which leads to a conclusion that the standard of the Kerala cricket team is yet to match that of many other state teams.[211] A cricket club from Kerala, the Kochi Tuskers, played for Kochi in the Indian Premier League (IPL) in 2011. Nonetheless, the team was disbanded after one season because of conflict of interests among its promoters.[215] Kerala is one of the very few states in India where football fan fervor exceeds that of cricket. Kerala has made many recognized achievements in national football, and has also contributed many notable footballers, like I. M. Vijayan, C. V. Pappachan, V. P. Sathyan, and Jo Paul Ancheri.[217][218] The Kerala state football team has won the Santhosh Trophy five times, in 1973, 1992, 1993, 2001 and 2004. Also, they were the runner-ups for seven times, a record they share with the state team of Goa.[219]
In sports, most admired achievements for Kerala come from athletics. Among the prominent athletes hailing from the state, P. T. Usha, Shiny Wilson and M.D. Valsamma are both Padma Shri as well as Arjuna Award winners while K. M. Beenamol and Anju Bobby George are Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna as well as Arjuna Award winners. T. C. Yohannan, Suresh Babu, Sinimol Paulose, Angel Mary Joseph, Mercy Kuttan, K. Saramma, K. C. Rosakutty and Padmini Selvan are the other Arjuna Award winners from Kerala.[211][220] Volleyball is another popular sport[221] and is often played on makeshift courts on sandy beaches along the coast. Jimmy George was a notable Indian volleyball player, rated in his prime as among the world's ten best players.[222] Other popular sports include badminton, basketball and kabaddi.
[edit]
Tourism
Kovalam beach, Thiruvananthapuram
The stone sculpture of Kuruvan and Kuruvati at Ramakkalmedu in Kerala
Ramakkalmedu, a hill station and a hamlet in Kerala
Munnar hill station.
Main article: Tourism in Kerala
Kerala is one of the popular tourist destinations in India. Its culture and traditions, coupled with its varied demographics, have made Kerala one of the most popular tourist destinations in the world. National Geographic's Traveller magazine names Kerala as one of the "ten paradises of the world"[223] and "50 must see destinations of a lifetime".[224] Travel and Leisure names Kerala as "One of the 100 great trips for the 21st century".[223][225][226] Kerala's beaches, backwaters, mountain ranges and wildlife sanctuaries are the major attractions for both domestic and international tourists. The city of Kochi ranks first in the total number of international and domestic tourists in Kerala.[227][228]
Until the early 1980s, Kerala was a relatively unknown destination.[229] But in 1986 the government of Kerala declared tourism as an industry and it was the first state in India to do so.[230] Aggressive marketing campaigns launched by the Kerala Tourism Development Corporation, the government agency that oversees tourism prospects of the state, laid the foundation for the growth of the tourism industry.[231] In the decades that followed, Kerala's tourism industry was able to transform the state into one of the niche holiday destinations in India. Many innovative marketing strategies were used and the advertisements branded Kerala with a catchy tagline Kerala, God's Own Country.[231] Today, Kerala tourism is a global brand and regarded as one of the destinations with highest recall.[231] In 2006, Kerala attracted 8.5 million tourist arrivals, an increase of 23.68% over the previous year, making the state one of the fastest-growing destinations in the world.[232] In 2011, tourist inflow to Kerala crossed the 10-million mark.[233]
Kerala has also pioneered health and medical tourism in India and has attained international attention in this segment. Though the idea of health tourism in Kerala is heavily concentrated on Ayurveda, it is also a good destination for other forms of treatment, including allopathy and homeopathy.[citation needed] Ayurvedic tourism became very popular since the 1990s, and private agencies like Kottakkal Arya Vydyasala played a notable role in tandem with the initiatives of Tourism Department.[229] Kerala is known for its ecotourism initiatives and in this segment it promotes mountaineering, trekking and bird-watching programmes in the Western Ghats as the major products.[234]
The state's tourism industry is a major contributor to the state's economy, which is currently growing at a rate of 13.31%.[235] The revenue from tourism increased fivefold between 2001 and 2011 and crossed the 190 billion mark in 2011. Moreover, the industry provides employment opportunity to 1.2 million people.[233]
The most popular tourist attractions in the state are beaches, backwaters and hill stations. Major beaches are at Kovalam, Varkala, Kappad, Muzhappilangad and Bekal. Popular hill stations are at Munnar, Wayanad, Wagamon, Peermade, Nelliampathi and Ponmudi.[236] Kerala's ecotourism destinations include 12 wildlife sanctuaries and two national parks: Periyar Tiger Reserve, Neyyar Wildlife Sanctuary, Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary, Thattekad Bird Sanctuary, Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary, Muthanga Wildlife Sanctuary, and Eravikulam National Park are the most popular among them.[237] The "backwaters" are an extensive network of interlocking rivers (41 west-flowing rivers), lakes, and canals that center around Alleppey, Kumarakom, Kollam and Punnamada (where the annual Nehru Trophy Boat Race is held in August). Cities such as Thiruvananthapuram, Kochi and Kozhikode are popular centres for their shopping and traditional theatrical performances.
Kerala is also a center of heritage and religious tourism sites. Padmanabhapuram Palace and the Mattancherry Palace are two notable heritage sites. The state is also famous for the large number of festivals (about 10,000 per year) it celebrates; of these, Onam and Thrissur Pooram attract a large inflow of foreign tourists. According to a survey conducted among foreign tourists, Elephants, fireworks display and huge crowd are the major attractions of Thrissur Pooram.[238] The main pilgrim tourist spots of Kerala are Sabarimala Temple, Aranmula Temple, Padmanabhaswamy Temple, Guruvayoor Temple, Chettikulangara Temple, Vadakumnathan Temple, Sarkara Devi Temple, Padanilam Parabrahma Temple, Beemapally mosque, Saint Thomas Syro-Malabar Catholic Church, Malayattoor, Parumala Church (Pathanamthitta) and St. Francis Church, Kochi.[citation needed] Saint Alphonsa Syro-Malabar Catholic Church, Bharananganam is also a destination of pilgrimage tourism.
[edit]
Gallery
Aranmula Parthasarathy Temple in Pathanamthitta district
Mountain pass (ghat) in Wayanad district in daytime
Mountain pass (ghat) in Wayanad district at night
Thiruvathira kali, a dance performed by women in Kerala during Onam and Thiruvaathira festivals.
Onappottan, a cultural image of Kerala, related to Onam.
Oppana, a dance form among the Muslim community in Kerala
Margam Kali, a dance form among the Syrian Christian community in Kerala
Paddy fields of Kerala in Sultan Bathery
A house boat on the backwaters near Alleppey in Kerala
Resorts dot the length and breadth of Kerala.
Munnar in Idukki district
Sunset at Varkala Beach
Kalaripayattu, a martial art of Kerala
Forest river in Wayanad district
Thrissur Pooram festival
[edit]
See also Geography portal
Asia portal
South Asia portal
India portal
Kerala portal
Outline of Kerala
Outline of India
Index of India-related articles
Bibliography of India
India (wikipedia books)
Emerging Kerala
List of notable people from Kerala
[edit]
Notes
^ The International Hydrographic Organisation defines the border between the Lakshadweep Sea and the Arabian Sea by a line running from Sadashivgad Lt. on west coast of India (14°48′N 74°07′E) to Corah Divh (13°42′N 72°10′E) and thence down the west side of the Lakshadweep and Maldive Archipelagos to the most southerly point of Addu Atoll in the Maldives.[239] However, the official website of the Government of Kerala and the Government of India[dead link] states that Kerala is bordered on the west by Arabian Sea.
^ α: Around the 9th century, the Cheras fell from power. Several small kingdoms (swaroopams) formed under the leadership of chieftains, filling the resulting political vacuum.[65]
[edit]
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